SOIL

SOIL

Soil types of the area are more important, since it is the main criteria in the agricultural production and in the recharge of ground water .Different types of soils are derived from a wide range of geological formation .knowledge about the types of soils, their extent and occurrence is of primary importance for agricultural planning to maximize production and for the ground water recharge. A soil map of Ariyalur district based on the surveys conducted by soil testing laboratory three types of soils which are furnished as follows in
i. Alluvial soil
ii. Red loam soil
iii. Black soil
Various types of cropping pattern are practiced in different parts of ariyalur district, depending upon the soil characteristics.

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GEOMORPHOLOGY

GEOMORPHOLOGY

Geomorphology maps help to identify the various geomorphic units and groundwater occurrence in each unit. Selected and limited field checks are carried out in the field to verify the different geomorphic units.
An overall appraisal of ground water occurrence in each geomorphic unit and the significance of its hydro geological characters are furnished with groundwater potential. Even though the groundwater potential zones are demarcated based on subsequent field checks, the present extraction of ground water has to be taken into consideration before implementing further groundwater schemes. Coleroon River is flowing on the south of the district and the vellar river is flowing on the north of the district. Alluvium is deposited on the northern and southern side of the rivers and occurs as alluvial plain.

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APPLICATION OF GIS

APPLICATION OF GIS

Integrated remote sensing and GIS can provide the appropriate platform for convergent analysis of diverse data sets for decision making in groundwater management and planning. A geographic information system (GIS) is also known as geospatial information system. It is a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated attributes which are spatially referenced to the Earth. GIS is used for spatial modelling of rainfall runoff and to prepare the data for model input, to assign effective parameters to each cell systematically, to allocate recharge and pumping rates to each grid cell, to visually compare the simulated and measured heads, to display the model results such as hydraulic heads, flow vectors and water quality contours. The GIS is used for preparing the spatial maps for the analysis puposes.

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NanoTechnology

NanoTechnology

Well-dispersed nanoparticies increase the viscosity of the liquid phase, which helps to suspend the cement grains and aggregates, which, in turn, improves the segregation resistance and workability of the system.
• Nanoparticies fill the voids between cement grains, which results in immobilization of free water (filler effect).
• Well-dispersed nanoparticies act as centers of crystallization of the cement hydrates, which accelerates the hydration.
• Nanoparticies favor the fomiation of small-sized crystals (such as calcium hydroxide)
• Nanosilica participates in the pozzolanic reactions, which results in the consumption of calcium hydroxide and formation of an additional C-S-H.
• Nanoparticies improve the structure of the aggregate contact zone, which results in better bond between aggregates and cement paste.
• Nanoprticles improve the toughness, shear, tensile strength and (lexural strength of concrete.

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ELECTROSPINNING METHOD

ELECTROSPINNING METHOD

Electrospinning is a unique approach using electrostatic forces to produce fine fibers. Electrostatic precipitators and pesticide sprayers are many of the well known applications that work exactly like the electrospinning technique. Electrospun fibers have small pore size and high expanse. There is also evidence of sizable static charges in the electrospun fibers that is effectively handled to produce three-dimensional houses. The apparatus used for electrospinning is straightforward in construction which includes a high voltage electric source having positive or negative polarity, a syringe pump with capillaries or tubes to cart the solution from the syringe or pipette towards the spinnerette and a conducting enthusiast. The collector can be made of any shape in line with the requirements like flat plate, spinning drum, etc. The schematic with the electrospinning process is shown with figure. Many researchers have used the apparatus exactly like the one shown in figure 1 with modifications depending on process conditions to spin numerous fine fibers.

Polymer solution or the melt that should be spun is forced through a syringe pump in order to create a pendant drop of polymer with the tip of the capillary as well as syringe needle. High voltage is placed on the polymer solution inside the syringe by using a connected electrode thereby inducing free charges in to the polymer solution. These charged ions transfer response to the applied electric field towards electrode of opposite polarity thereby transferring tensile forces towards the polymer liquid. At the tip with the capillary, the pendant hemispherical polymer drop swallows a cone like projection in the presence of electric field. And, when the applied potential reaches a critical value that is required to overcome the surface tension with the liquid, a jet of liquid is ejected on the cone tip.

Future Prospect:

Future developments of nanotechnologies in textiles can have a two¬fold focus:
1) replacing existing functions ind performances of textile materials;
2) developing smart and intelligent textiles with unheard of functions.
The latter is more urgent on the standpoint of homeland security and also advancement of technology. The new functions with textiles for being developed include
1) wearable photovoltaic cell and energy storage;
2) sensors and information acquisition and move;
3) multiple and sophisticated security and detection
4) health-care and also wound healing functions;
5) self-cleaning and also repairing functions.
Undoubtedly, Nanotechnology holds an enormously promising future regarding textiles. It s estimated that nanotechnology provides about hundreds of billions dollars of market have an effect on new materials within a decade; textile certainly has an important share in his material market place. We expect to see a fresh horizon of textile materials underneath this irresistible technology wave.

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TITANIUM DIOXIDE

TITANIUM DIOXIDE

Titanium dioxide itself doesn't have toxicity to microbe and the cell. Only after the irradiation of light for instance fluorescent or UV light, normal mineral Ti02 activates its one of a kind photo catalytic properties. In the presence of light and humid inside air, titanium dioxide oxidizes, converts complex organic molecules into water and co2 fractional laser. Photo catalytic power of titanium dioxide productively destroys bacteria cell's wall and it is membrane, and reacts with cell's parts, which inhibits bacteria's activity and ultimately results in the death and decomposition of bacteria, thus eliminating bad odours created by a living or decomposing bacteria plus reduces risk of bacteria spread.

The increase in patents over the last decade indicates a huge curiosity, especially from Japan and Europe, in the application of Ti02 seeing that photocatalyst in buildmu materials
Regarding the reduction of air pollution on account of traffic in urban areas, the application on pavement surfaces or around the building surfaces in cementations supplies gives optimal solutions. To boost the efficiency of the photocatalyst, its presence at the surface of the material is crucial. It really needs to be accessible by sunlight to be activated. Consequently, the pollutant really needs to be absorbed on the surface and oxidized or reduced to some less harmful element. The goal is to have the maximum amount of TiC>2 as possible at the surface of the material, without the risk of loosing it by abrasion or maybe weathering. Up till now, by far the most efficient way to apply the TiC>2 is within a thin layer cementations substance, which is placed on the counter. Application in concrete tiles is actually therefore very suitable: the TiOa is usually added to the weathering coating. If the layer is somewhat used, new Ti02-particles will exist at the surface.

Other applications are located in architectural concrete. The use of white cement with TiCh at the surface of buildings and construction attribute to the durability of the visual area of the building. Due to the photocatalytic action, the whiteness of the building will remain and dirt will be washed away more easily due to hydrophilic properties or will be decomposed.

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CUORE CONCRETE NANO-SILICA

CUORE CONCRETE NANO-SILICA

The mixing of nano silica throughout concrete physics, chemistry and new nanotechnology advances, the challenge has been fulfilled. Lab tests and production tests proved the nano silica did not ruin (because its state), but it also produced better results than small silica, and a litre bottle on the product was equivalent to a barrel packed with micro silica, extra cement along with super plasticizing additives. Silica (SiCte) is present in conventional concrete included in the normal mix. However, one on the advancements made by the study of concrete at the nanoscale is that particle packing in concrete may be improved by using nano-silica which leads to your densifying of the micro and nanostructure resulting in improved mechanical properties. Nano-silica addition to cement based materials can also control the degradation of the primary C-S-H (calcium-silicatehydrate) reaction of concrete due to calcium leaching in water together with block water penetration and therefore lead to improvements in durability. Related to be able to improved particle packing, high electricity milling of ordinary Portland concrete (OPC) clinker and standard crushed stone, produces a greater particle size diminution regarding conventional OPC and, as a result, the compressive strength of the refined material can also be 3 to 6 times better (at different ages).


Fly ash not simply improves concrete durability, strength along with, importantly for sustainability, reduces the necessity for cement, however, the curing process of tangible is slowed by the addition connected with fly ash and early phase strength is also low compared to normal concrete. With the addition of SiCh nanoparticles section of the cement is replaced but the density and strength on the fly-ash concrete improves particularly in the early stages. Research into hematite (Fe20;, ) nanoparticles added to concrete indicates that they also increase strength together with offering the benefit of monitoring stress levels from the measurement of section electrical level of resistance.

Because of its innovation your nano silica was tested for over a year in the world's biggest subterranean copper mine to prove its long lasting characteristics. Cuore concrete takes care on the environment, the concrete and your operators' health. It is the very first nano product that replaced your micro sihca. Cuore concrete surpassed the anticipations of its design and gave concrete not simply the high initial and final resistance and also, plasticity, impermeability, minor final charge of work, and cement savings up to 40%. Also, it lowered the amounts of environmental contamination
In high compressive benefits concretes (H-70), Cuore concrete is 88% more efficient than micro silica, added to be able to concrete and super plasticizers. ( With an average 9, 43 Kg. connected with Cuore concrete Nanosilica, 73Kg. of all the others additives are used).


The cone test shows which it preserves the cone shape for several hour, (with a relation connected with H2O/Cement=0. 5, adding 0. 5% of Nano silica on the metric volume of the concrete used, it conserved a its circle form of 60 cm lor two a long time, with a lost of solely 5%). The nano silica has a plasticity that was compared to the pohcarboxilate technologies. Therefore the use of tremendous plasticizing additives is unnecessary.
• High workability along with reduced water/concrete levels, for case: 0, 2.
• Easy homogenization. The reduction of mixing times allows concrete plants to increase their production
• Depending on the cement as well as the formulations used for concrete (tests through value H-30 to H-70), shows that the material provides compressive benefits between 15 MPa and 75 MPa at 1 day; 40 MPa and 90 MPa on 28 days and 48 MPa along with 120 MPa at 120 days to weeks.
• Nano silica fully complies with ISO 14001 regulations concerning the environment and health. It preserves operators on the danger of being contaminated with silicosis and isn't going to contaminate the environment.
It successfully passed all the tests and since the start of this year it is being commercialized in different parts of the world.

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NANO-SENSORS

NANO-SENSORS

Strain sensors are a fundamental piece of mueh of the lab function completed in structuralengineering. Sensors monitor and quantify the behavior of a test specimen, and provide insight into the reasons behind the behavior. In concrete, strain sensors can be converted into three main categories

• External strain sensor
• Strain gage sensor
• Embedded strain gage sensor

The most fundamental category is external strain detectors. These are attached to the outdoors of the specimen and typically record the worries at that location very precisely. The disadvantage of these sensors is that almost all the time the critical location on the specimen is not on the outside of the specimen, and for that reason, the readings provided by these gages are simply marginally beneficial.
The second kind of strain gage typically used in concrete can be a strain gage that is Added to the steel reinforcement inside the concrete. These gages can end up being placed insidethe concrete, so for a lot of applications they are more helpful. However, they can only be used in regions where there is metallic reinforcement. Also, these gages provide the strain the steel, not the worries in the concrete.

The third kind of strain gage is an inserted strain sensor. These are gages which can be cast into the concrete and still provide readings of the strain from the concrete at their location.
They must be anchored or perhaps bonded to the concrete so as to function properly. They are able to providing the strain in the concrete at any location and in any direction. There arc embedded strain gages that already exist, but they are typically large and expensi A fresh material has been developed that's the potential to be found in tins applicat and this study examines the potency of this material. This experimental material is produced employing a process called electrostatic self-assembly.

The procedure is completed by building in place alternating layers of positive as well as negatively charged particles. The material is formed right into a l/8-in. -thick flexible sheet that exhibits the conductance properties of a metal. This includes changing resistance for the reason that length is changed. It is this property that creates the material potentially useful like a strain sensor. If the sensor can be anchored to a specimen and the resistance of the sensor can be accurately measured, the change in resistance on the sensor should correspond to the worries in the specimen. The experimental material is usually very durable. It can withstand large strains and is particularly unaffected by the high pH that occurs in concrete. It is also manufactured in sheets, so the sensors can end up being cut to any size or shape that's needed is. These properties give this new material an advantage over existing embedded strain gages.

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TITANIUM DIOXIDE

TITANIUM DIOXIDE

Titanium dioxide itself doesn't have toxicity to microbe and this cell. Only after the irradiation of light including fluorescent or UV light, normal mineral Ti02 activates its unique photo catalytic properties. In the presence of light and humid from the air, titanium dioxide oxidizes, converts complex organic molecules into water and carbon dioxide. Photo catalytic power of titanium dioxide properly destroys bacteria cell's wall and it is membrane, and reacts with cell's ingredients, which inhibits bacteria's activity and ultimately ends up with the death and decomposition associated with bacteria, thus eliminating bad odours created by a living or decomposing bacteria plus reduces risk of bacteria spread.
The increase in patents throughout the last decade indicates a huge interest, especially from Japan and European countries, in the application of Ti02 as photocatalyst in buildmu materials
Regarding the reduction of air pollution because of traffic in urban areas, the approval on pavement surfaces or on the building surfaces in cementations supplies gives optimal solutions. To boost the efficiency of the photocatalyst, its presence at the top of material is crucial. It must be accessible by sunlight to be activated. Consequently, the pollutant must be absorbed on the surface and oxidized or reduced to your less harmful element. The goal is to have just as much TiC>2 as possible at the top of material, without the risk associated with loosing it by abrasion or maybe weathering. Up till now, one of the most efficient way to apply the TiC>2 is at a thin layer cementations product, which is placed on the counter. Application in concrete tiles is actually therefore very suitable: the TiOa is usually added to the weathering stratum. If the layer is slightly used, new Ti02-particles will be present at the surface. Other applications come in architectural concrete. The use of white cement with TiCh with the surface of buildings and construction attribute towards the durability of the visual part of the building. Due to this photocatalytic action, the whiteness of the building will continue and dirt will be washed away more easily due to hydrophilic properties or will be decomposed.

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Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is an emerging interdisciplinary technology that is booming in many areas over the recent decade, including materials science, mechanics, electronics, optics, medicine, pockets, energy, electronics, and aerospace. Its profound societal impact have been considered as the huge momentum to usher in a second industrial revolution.

The "nano" in nanotechnolgy emanates from the Greek word "nanos" actually dwarf. Scientists use this prefix to indicate 10'*' or one-billionth. One nanometer is one-billionth meter that's about 100, 000 times smaller than the diameter of a single human hair. Nanotechnology endeavors are aimed at manipulating atoms, molecules and nanosize particles in a precise and controlled manner to be able to build materials with a basically new organization and novel components.

The embryo of nanotechnology is actually "atomic assembly", which was initial publicly articulated in 1959 through physicist Richard Feynman. Nanotechnology is named a "bottom up" technology with which bulk materials can be built precisely in tiny play blocks, different from the traditional manufacture — "top down" technology. Therefore, resultant materials have fewer defects and higher quality.

The fundamentals of nanotechnology lie in the fact that properties of substances dramatically modify when their size is reduced towards the nanometer range. When a bulk material is actually divided into small size particles with more than one dimension

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CONSTRUCTION PROJECT MANAGER CAREER

CONSTRUCTION PROJECT MANAGER CAREER

Some sort of construction task manager can be a qualified individual that has a degree inside construction administration, civil new or construction science. Being in charge of construction initiatives, he has so that the entire project can be completed by the due date, without going above budgetary restrictions. It is often a high demand job. The director has comprehensive control and is particularly liable pertaining to everything related to the progress project.

The brand Construction Task Manager can be loosely used to define any supervisory stage professionals who direct professionals in progress projects. He can be called by means of other titles for example construction superintendent, normal construction director, executive construction manager, constructor and even contractor or sub-contractor. He could be the salaried employee of an construction firm or engaged to manage a particular construction task.

The construction project manager should be involved from the project right from the start through to be able to its completion. By employing his understanding and expertise concerning the efficient usage of essential assets, he must guarantee this achievement associated with predetermined targets of charge, time, in addition to excellent. To ensure of most of these objectives, they have to determine which construction methods work for cost successful scheduling. She must discuss new and new drawings having design engineers as a way to effectively program and harmonize every area of the project. This might include preparation and making use of complicated stream charts in addition to pub maps, and a variety of graphs created for data rendering. Nowadays, project supervisors use computers to take care of, conceptualize in addition to implement strategies and patterns.
The construction project director must program a rational, phase smart implementation with the project, assigning fixed timeframes for your completion of each phase. She has to get all measures to see that the time frame is followed.

These days to weeks, there is a good demand in case you have a good academic base in neuro-scientific construction management. Business employers generally like a certification in construction science, with unique consentrate for the management aspect. It is often a four-year stage course furnished by over 120 colleges in the united kingdom.
Coursework for the degree inside construction science can be very comprehensive. A number of the subjects covered are going to be engineering in addition to architectural sciences, mathematics concepts, statistics, computer scientific discipline, project control and progress, site preparing, building design and style, construction strategies, construction assets, value research, cost calculating, commitment management, building rules and expectations and inspection procedures.
The American Institute associated with Constructors (AIC) as well as Construction Supervision Association associated with America (CMAA) likewise give certification just after written assessments and verification linked to education. The AIC honours the Bring up Constructor (AC) in addition to Certified Specialist Constructor (CPC) designations as well as CMAA honours the Qualified Design Supervisor (CMM) situation.

There tend to be better task prospects pertaining to applicants having work knowledge. The preference from the career market is designed for academically qualified individuals who have undergone internships in addition to worked inside construction sector. They must be trained inside building technological know-how.

The Nation's Association associated with Colleges in addition to Employers conducted an income survey inside July 2011 in addition to found that will candidates which has a degree inside construction administration got a typical annual salary figure associated with $92, 000.
You will discover bright job prospects for some kind of professionally certified construction task manager. Practical work experience can be of important importance before a situation of independent functioning may possibly possibly be offered. Lots of years experience in the junior-grade situation on construction projects can be a prerequisite necessary by many business organisations. The situation would fetch some kind of handsome salary package in addition to commands a good position inside society.

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Top 10 Tips on Managing Construction Workers

Top 10 Tips on Managing Construction Workers , Staff

1. Set obvious direction: Might seem obvious that you should have clear goals and yet almost 40% of employees in Construction companies usually are not sure what their employer expects of them.

2. Link individual goals on the strategy of the company: As a manager you might know what your company is trying to achieve but there's every chance that your people don't. Only 30% of UK employees know the way their job role impacts and leads to their organisation reaching its ideal vision. It's your job to make this link clear and only do that by talking about it - on a regular basis!

3. Know what your folks have natural aptitude for: Your key work as a manager is to know your people well enough to understand what they accomplish best. Where they have healthy aptitude, they can excel. Practice doesn't make perfect if you do not are practicing in an division of natural talent.

4. Know ones people's weaknesses: Where your people have zero natural talent, they will not necessarily excel. Best case scenario, they can become average using practice and training but release the notion that they will certainly ever become high performers throughout those areas

. 5. Recruit, promote and performance manage using the strengths needed and weaknesses which might be acceptable for each role.

6. Create the suitable attitude: You can motivate your people by giving them with clear direction and playing for their strengths - but you should find out what makes these people tick as individuals. What urges you rarely motivates your folks. Everyone is different and you'd be wise to ask as averse to making too many assumptions.

7. Give praise when praise arrives: This is the most underneath utilized tool for motivating ones people. Don't wait for perfection! Notice and praise situations along with behaviors that went well, pointing out specifically what was good and the positive impact that they had.
70% of Construction employees report them to don't receive praise regularly. What an easy move to make that makes a lot of difference.

8. Manage yourself: To be a manager, you are a mini celebrity whilst your team watch your every move - like inconsistencies between what you say and what we do. Don't expect your people to be something about to catch.

9. Handle critical conversations: Discover ways to tackle giving negative feedback along with handling difficult situations (like behaviors and performance issues) with your people. It's a skill, usually something we either want to avoid or end up doing badly.

10. Deal with transform: Dealing with a constantly changing environment is hard for many people. Especially when they don't view the benefits themselves. Every manager should be a change expert, not theoretically but in practice. Delivering the message and getting buy in is another thing, where the real difference is created is by executing with consistency.

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World First Green Shop Made out of Natural Material

World First Green Shop Made out of Natural Material

A Belgian custom done this
The Belgian designer Ann Demeulemeester’s fashion retail shop from the Gangnam district of South Korea’s funds city Seoul brings some new dimensions towards the Green concept. Seoul which is the second largest metropolitan and a major global city on the planet, can surely boast of this that provides colors to its already recent metropolitan culture.

This unique green shop would be the blend of the modern unnatural and natural architecture, which is simply a multy-story building that employs Geo textiles planted with herbaceous plants to create the living walls and the actual stupendous green roof system.

The aim is to cover the structure with all the real green roofs and environmentally friendly living walls both externally in addition to internally, smearing off the lines relating to the landscape and the building. The glass covering a midst the entire green concept provides the required elegance towards the structure.

The basement is the ‘multy-shop’, the ground floor contains the hot collections from the actual designer, and the second floor incorporates a restaurant.

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PRECAUTIONS BEFORE PLACING CONCRETE INSIDE COLD

PRECAUTIONS BEFORE PLACING CONCRETE 

INSIDE COLD

If we go for concrete work in general it is not a problem at all, but specially when cold weather comes on all of the sudden. To handle the cold, have everything you will need on hand and review the following pointers:

Frozen ground-NEVER place concrete upon frozen ground or onto snow or snow. First, frozen ground will settle when it thaws, cracking the concrete. Second, when the ground is wintry, the concrete in contact with it will likely be cold and will set much more slowly. You can even obtain crusting, with the top area of the concrete set and the bottom still soft.
If the ground is frozen, you can unfreeze it using hydronic heat pipe joints and blankets (such as those from Ground Heaters), or electrical blankets (check out Power Blanket).
Remove all snow and snow in areas where concrete shall be placed. Also remove any standing water which may get mixed into the real.

Warm up anything that will are in contact with the concrete, including forms in addition to any embedments, to at very least 32°F. If it's not too cold so you cover everything with tarps the morning before the pour, it will continue dry and warm enough. Keep tools within your truck or trailer.
Be all set with blankets, even if you do not think it will get in which cold. Also consider whether you should have lights if the concrete pieces more slowly than expected and also the winter sun sets just as you're finally wanting to start finishing.

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Pervious Concrete

Pervious Concrete

Pervious concrete  (also called porous concrete , permeable tangible, no fines concrete floor and porous pavement) could be a special type of concrete with a high porosity useful for concrete flatwork applications that permits water from precipitation and other sorts of sources to pass directly by using, thereby reducing the runoff for a site and making it possible for groundwater charge. Pervious concrete is made employing large aggregates with little in order to no fine aggregates. This concrete paste after that layers the aggregates and allows water to be able to feed the concrete floor slab. Pervious concrete is traditionally found in parking areas, areas with lighting site visitors, residential streets, pedestrian routes, and greenhouses. It is an important request for lasting construction and is one of the low impact advancement techniques as used by builders to protect water the best quality.

Construction

Pervious concrete consists regarding concrete, coarse aggregate and standard water with little to no great aggregates. The addition of almost no sand will enhance the toughness. The mixture carries a water-to-cement relation of 0. 28 to be able to 0. 40 with a void content of 15 to 25 %.

The correct variety of water inside the concrete is very important. A low water to cement ratio increase the potency in the concrete, but inadequate water might bring about surface failure. A proper water content provides the mixture a wet-metallic appearance. As this concrete floor is sensitive in order to water content, the mixture must be field checked. Entrained air could be measured by an instant Air system, where the concrete can always be stained black and sections are often analyzed under some sort of microscope.

A common flatwork variety has riser strips at the summit such that the screed could be 3/8-1/2 in. (9 to 12 mm) previously mentioned final pavement degree of lift. Mechanical screeds are better manual. The riser strip are removed to steer compaction. Immediately right after screeding, the concrete is compacted to boost the bond and smooth the counter. Excessive compaction of pervious concrete brings about higher compressive power, but cheaper porosity (and as a result lower permeability).

Joints are tooled with a rolling jointing tool prior in order to curing or saw cut soon after curing. Curing contains masking concrete with 6 mil. plastic-type sheeting within 20 moments regarding concrete discharge. However, this contributes to many waste sent to be able to landfills. Additionally, preconditioned absorptive lightweight aggregate in addition to internal curing admixture (ICA) are used to effectively cure pervious tangible without waste generation.

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Function of Pile Foundation

Function of Pile Foundation

As other styles of foundations, the purpose of pile foundations is:

– To transmit the buildings loads to the foundations and the ground soil layers whether these loads up and down or inclined

– To put in loose cohesion less soil by means of displacement and vibration.

– To regulate the settlements; which can be together with surface foundations.

– To improve the factor of safety for heavy loads buildings

The selection of type of pile foundation will depend on site investigation report. Site investigation report suggests the importance of pile foundation, type of pile foundation for being used, depth of pile foundation for being provided. The cost analysis of various options for use of pile foundation must be carried out before selection of pile foundation types.

Unless the soil condition is rocks, for heavy construction and multi-storied buildings, the bearing capacity of soil at shallow depth most likely are not satisfactory for the loads about the foundation. In such cases, pile foundation must be provided. The number of piles inside a pile groups required is calculate on the pile capacity of single pile plus the loads on the foundation. Piles undoubtedly are a convenient method of foundation with regard to works over water, such because jetties or bridge piers.

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Cavity Walls

Cavity Walls

A couple walls which has a 5 cm in order to 8 cm comprise a hole wall getting cavity between they. The outer wall also referred to as outer leaf, consists of your 10 cm (half brick) heavy wall along with the inner walls is enough thick and also strong to handle the imposed load safety. The minimal thickness within the inner wall is fixed to 10 cm (half brick). The provision on the continuous cavity within the wall effectively prevents stops the transmitting of water towards intrinsic wall.

Advantages:

The areas of cavity walls could possibly be summarised because below:

1. They have great sound insulation home.

2. The level of air inside the cavity becoming non-conductor involving warmth decreases the transmitting of heat on the external face on the internal one therefore hole walls are best made for a hawaiian country like India. Checks have revealed that hole walls have got 25% greater insulating value than stable walls.

3. As there is absolutely no intimate contact between the two leaves except the walls ties (which are connected with impervious material), there's no possibility on the moisture travelling on the outer leaf toward inner.

4. They are economical.

Locating Cavity:

The hole should start out near ground level and terminate near eaves level in the case of sloping roof structure or close to coping in the case of flat roof structure with parapet walls. The hole should preferably begin 15 cm underneath the damp-proof education level. This has the advantage connected with draining just about any condensed dampness below just how much damp-proof program. Similarly, to lessen infiltration involving moisture, the bottom of hole should lie at the very least 15 cm above the away side ground level. The damp-proof course for every leaves will be laid separately, although to the same degree. This is essential to go on the hole below damp-proof education. The hole is retained fully ventilated by giving air bricks within the external walls immediately above damp-proof education. The air flow bricks ought to be kept 85 cm aside. Similarly, air bricks are given near the the very best cavity.

Wall  Ties:

Each walls are tied joined with metallic as well as terra-cotta ties to acquire structural security. They are chilled 85 cm aside horizontally along with 30 in order to 45 cm different vertically throughout staggered roles.

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Erosion of Concrete

Erosion of Concrete

Erosion is one way of wearing of concrete that is observed hold of flowing water. The water body that benefits erosion may carry solid particles that leads to serious erosion to cement.

Another term cavitation is closely related to erosion which will be discussed in the next write-up. Let’s concentrate to this subject matter. We are listing the factors that determine the amount of erosion:

a. Quantity in the transported particles

b. Shape of such particles

Almost damaged concrete channel by erosion
c. Size of such particles

d. Hardness of these kinds of particles

e. Velocity of particle mobility

f. Formation of eddies gary the gadget guy. At last quality of cement

The concrete quality, especially in surface zone is critical to resist erosion of cement. We will provide factors and approaches to control erosion in the extremely next post. Like abrasion the resistance against erosion is also related to the potency of concrete but mix composition of concrete is additionally vital.

Exposed reinforcement due to concrete erosion

Erosion is a mechanical damage of concrete that is frequently associated with corrosion. Marine concrete is the ideal example of such harm. With this corrosion effects, erosion is happened when mechanical damage to concrete is occurred by the waves of water with pea gravel and sand carried by them. Sometimes crystallized salt takes the portion of impacting from carried particles.

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Repair works in Concrete

Repair works in Concrete

To begin with we will learn when structural repair for concrete structure is necessary. The aims of structural repair are to deliver safety to structures, repairing structural defects and bring structure into a stable condition to resist concrete floor member from further deterioration. They are done by increasing stiffness along with strength of structure and protecting against intrusion of deteriorating agents for you to structures to restrict further hardship. Sometimes increasing of aesthetical appearance is also a objective of structural repair.


The repair options are chosen based on the deteriorated conditions of structure and level of increment of strength and stiffness of deteriorated structure. We are providing some methods of repair of concrete structure. These types of options may, individually or combination greater than one, be adopted for these kinds of purposes. These are:


Replacing broken concrete roof after passivating corroded metallic
1. Patch repair.

2. Grouting technique of crack repair.

3. Replacing concrete which might be structurally weak.

4. Replacing delaminated and/or spalled concrete floor.

5. Replacing carbonated concrete around steel reinforcement.

6. Passivating and cleaning steel reinforcement which might be corroded Cracked concrete pavement required repair

7. Re-alkalising carbonated concrete floor.

8. Removing chlorides by electro-chemical process from chloride deteriorated concrete

9. Any methods of water proofing or providing protecting coating.

10. Jacketing to offer protection against corrosion.

11. Supplying concrete overlays by later revised or low to highly smooth overlays of concrete.

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Preservation of Timber

Preservation of Timber

Availability regarding hardwood means safeguarding hardwood coming from fungus in addition to bugs attack to ensure the living is usually elevated. Wooden is to be expert a long time before application regarding preservative chemicals.

The following are this popular preservative chemicals:

1. Tar

2. Paints

3. Compound sodium

5. Creosote

5. ASCO

1. Tar:

Scorching coal tar is usually used on hardwood along with brush. The actual coating regarding tar safeguards this hardwood on the attack regarding fungus in addition to bugs. This can be a lowest priced way of safeguarding hardwood. Main negative aspect of the approach to availability is usually that appearance is just not excellent immediately after tar is usually employed it's not necessarily probable to put on additional attractive paints. For this reason tarring is made only for this trivial structures like fence poles.

2.Paints:

2 to 3 layers regarding essential oil paints tend to be employed in clean up surface area regarding lumber. The actual paint safeguards this hardwood coming from water. The actual paint is to be employed from time to time. Paint increases the look from the hardwood. Solignum paint is really a specific paint which in turn safeguards this hardwood on the attack regarding termites.

3. Compound sodium:

These are generally this preservative chemicals produced by dissolving salts in water. The actual salts used tend to be real estate agent sulphate, masonry chloride, zinc chloride in addition to salt fluoride. After the treatment of this hardwood with one of these substance sodium paints in addition to varnishes can be used on get excellent appearance.

5. Creosote:

Creosote essential oil is usually purchased by simply distillation regarding coal tar. The actual expert hardwood is usually maintained within the air small appropriate slot in addition to air is usually depleted. Subsequently creosote essential oil is usually pumped in to the appropriate slot in a force regarding 0. 8 to 1. 0 N/mm2 in a temp regarding 50°C. After one or two hrs hardwood is usually taken out of this appropriate slot.

5. ASCO:

That chemical is usually put together by this Woodland Exploration Start, Dehradun. The item involves 1 component by simply pounds regarding hydrated arsenic pentoxide (As2O5, two H2O), 3 components by simply pounds regarding real estate agent sulphate (CuSO4⋅5 H2O) in addition to 5 components by simply pounds regarding potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or even salt dichromate (Na2Cr2O7⋅2 H2O). That chemical will come in natural powder style. By simply mixing 6-8 regions of that natural powder along with 100 regions of water, the perfect solution is usually prepared. The solution is usually subsequently dispersed over the surface area regarding hardwood. Botox injections prevents attack coming from termites. The top may be painted to obtain preferred appearance.

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Common Area Works

Common Area Works

1. Staircase and Lift wall to become constructed along with structure.
only two. Block work for common place and shafts are completed.
3. Power conduiting and box fixing is completed.
4. Staircase wall as well as ceiling plastering is completed.
5. Lobby area plastering is done.
6. Staircase railing and foyer railings are fixed.
7. Stairs and common area flooring as well as dadoing (as per specification) tend to be completed.
8. Granite coping as well as lift architraves granite works tend to be completed.
9. Putty, sanding as well as first coat paint to ceiling are completed.
10. Services such as Plumbing and fire are done.
11. Electrical wiring works tend to be completed.
12. Shaft door repairing is completed.
13. Shaft door painting is completed.
14. Grouting involving floor tile, wall tile as well as granite are done.
15. Silicon sealant is effective are completed.
16. Signages tend to be fixed.
17. Final snagging as well as handover of common area for you to CRM.

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Properties of Good Timbers

Properties of Good Timbers

Colour: It should be uniform.

Aroma: It should be pleasant when cut freshly.

Soundness: A distinct ringing sound when struck implies the timber is good.

Surface: Texture of good timber is okay and even.

Grains: In good timber grains are close.

Thickness: Higher the density stronger is the timber.

Hardness: Harder timbers tend to be strong and durable.

Warping: Good timber tend not to warp under changing environmental circumstances.

Toughness: Timber should be competent at resisting shock loads.

Abrasion: Good timber tend not to deteriorate due to wear. This property must be looked into, if timber shall be used for flooring.

Strength: Timber needs to have high strength in bending, shear as well as direct compression.

Modulus of Firmness: Timber with higher modulus connected with elasticity are preferred in structure.

Fire resistance: A good timber needs to have high resistance to fire.

Permeability: Good timber has low water permeability.

Workability: Timber must be easily workable. It should definitely not clog the saw.

Durability: Good timber is one that is capable of resisting your action of fungi and insect pests attack

Defects: Good timber is exempt from defects like dead knots, shakes as well as cracks.

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CYCLONE RESISTANT BUILDINGS

CYCLONE RESISTANT BUILDINGS

A cyclone is a storm associated with high speed whistling and peaceful winds. It brings torrential down pours. A cyclone storm develops above tropical ocean and blows at speed as high as 200–240 km/hour. It is usually associated with lightning, thunder and continuous downpour of rain. Cyclones extend from a hundred and fifty km to 1200 km in lateral directions with forced wind gusts spiralling around a central minimal pressure area. The central spot of light winds and minimal pressure, known as the ‘eye’ of cyclone has a average diameter of 20 to 30 km.

This central eye is surrounded with a ring of very strong winds extending nearly 40 to 50 km over and above centre. This region is named ‘wall cloud’. In this spot strongest winds and torrential down pours occur. Beyond this region wind gusts spiralling extend outwards to big distances, which goes on reducing while using distance from the centre on the cyclone.

The following care must be taken in designing buildings in cyclone prone areas:
1. Foundations must be deeper
2. R. C. Chemical. framed structures are to end up being preferred over load bearing structures
3. Sloping roofs should end up being avoided.
4. Cantilever projections must be avoided.
5. Roof and parapet wall must be properly anchored to the columns and walls.
6. Height on the buildings should be restricted.
7. Suitable wind load should be considered in the building design.
8. Openings in the wall should be less. 9. Structure must not rest on loose soil.

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Types of Earthquakes

Types of Earthquakes

Depending upon the probable causes, the earthquakes may continually be classified as:

1. Natural earthquake

only two. Earthquakes due to induced pursuits.

Natural Earthquakes

Natural earthquakes could possibly be due to

(i) active faults

(ii) movement of tectonic china or

(iii) due to volcanic eruptions. In earth’s crust there are some faults which are not still settled. The displacement of crud together faults cause earthquake. Tectonic means large scale process affecting the structure inside the earthcrust. This process causes gradual movement of material from the crust of earth.

Sometimes it shakes planet earth crust. Volcano is a mountain or hill developing a crater through which lava, stone fragments, hot vapour and gas are or are already erupted from the earths crust. Occasionally the volcanoes become active and create earthquake nearby the mountain crater.

Earthquakes due to help Induced Activities

These include caused by vibrations induced through atomic explosions and collapse of ground as a consequence of faulty mining.

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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

Maps are widely-used as the languages of easy geography. Importance of map making is recognised previously. Surveyors went round the land and prepared maps. Data necessary for locating and calculating extent of any place/region is called spatial information.

Physical properties and human activities associated with a place/region are stored by means of tables, charts and texts. These details is called attribute data. Speaking about maps/plans and then to characteristic data stored in hard copies like books is cumbersome updating and managing the information is difficult. This problem is overcome by simply combining spatial data and attribute data with the location by appropriate data starting management in computers. The location information (spatial data) is digitised through available maps and stored with computers. For this data composition used is either raster information or vector data format. In raster data structures pickcells are from the spatial information, while in vector data structure coordinates are related to each region and sub-regions. In the spatial data attribute data will be overlayed and stored. Once that geographical information system is created, the user can access the attribute data of any where by clicking over the spatial data of the place. The user can utilise the info for further analysis, planning or to the management. For example, if land records of any village is developed as GIS information, the user can click the state map to post the district map and then access taluka map. Then he will access it to post the village map. Then land record of that village can be obtained and property map of any owner may be checked and printed. All this could be achieved in a very small amount of time from any convenient place. Remote sensing and GIS go hand in hand, since lot of data with regard to GIS is from remote realizing. Remote sensing needs GIS with regard to data analysis.

Some of the elements of GIS application are:
1. drainage techniques
2. streams and river basins supervision
3. lakes
4. canals
5. roads
6. railways
7. land documents
8. layout of residential locations
9. location of market, manufacturing, cultural and other utilities
10. land use of different crops etc.
The above information helps with planning infrastructural development activities such as planning roads, rail routes, dams, pathways, tunnels, etc. It helps in taking steps to test hazards of soil erosion and environmental pollution. Monitoring of crop pattern and condition helps in taking necessary action towards the challenges in future.

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Application of Remote Sensing

Application of Remote Sensing 

Various applications of remote sensing could possibly be grouped into the following:
1. Reference exploration
2. Environmental study
3. Land use
4. Site investigation
5. Archaeological analysis and
6. Natural hazards examine.

1. Resource Exploration: Geologists use remote sensing to review the formation of sedimentary rocks and identify deposits of varied minerals, detect oil fields and also identify underground storage of h2o. Remote sensing is used pertaining to identifying potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping in order to find other wealth from marine.

2. Environmental Study: Remote sensing is utilized to study cloud motion and also predict rains. With satellite data you'll be able to study water discharge from various industries to discover dispersion and harmful effects, if any, on living animals. Oil spillage and oil slicks can be studied using remote sensing.

3. Land Use: By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas may be possible in short time. Forest area, agricultural area, residential and industrial area can be measured regularly and monitored. It's possible to find out areas of diverse crops.

4. Site Investigation: Remote sensing is utilized extensively in site investigations pertaining to dams, bridges, pipelines. It may be used to locate construction materials like sand and gravel for that new projects.

5. Archaeological Exploration: Many structures of old era are actually buried under the ground and therefore are not known. But by studying changes in moisture content along with other characteristics of the buried materials and upper new layer, remote sensors can recognise the buried structutures regarding archaeological importance.

6. Natural Threat Study:
Using remote sensing the pursuing natural hazards can be predicted to some extent and hazards minimised:
1. Earthquake
2. Volcanoes
3. Landslides
4. Massive amounts and
5. Hurricane and cyclones.

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Use of Total Station and Advantages

Use of Total Station and Advantages

The instrument is installed on a tripod and is levelled by means of operating levelling screws. Within a smaller range instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then vertical and horizontal reference directions are indexed using onboard keys. It may be possible to set required units for distance, temperature and pressure (FPS or perhaps SI). Surveyor can select description mode like fine, coarse, solitary or repeated. When target is usually sighted, horizontal and vertical angles in addition to sloping distances are measured and by pressing appropriate keys there're recorded along with point number. Heights of instrument and targets might be keyed in after measuring these individuals with tapes. Then processor computes various details about the point and displays about screen. This information is also stored from the electronic note book. At the finish of the day or anytime electronic note book is full, the information stored is delivered electronically to computers. The point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There are software like automotive civil and auto plotter clubbed with autocad that is used for plotting contours with any specified interval and for plotting cross-section along any chosen line.

Advantages of Using Total Stations

The following are a lot of the major advantages of using total station in the conventional surveying instruments:

1. Field work is executed very fast.
2. Accuracy of measurement is high.
3. Manual errors interested in reading and recording are eradicated.
4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature and pressure are usually automatically made.
5. Computers can be used for map making and plotting shape and cross-sections. Contour intervals and scales can be changed quickly. However, surveyor should check the working condition from the instruments before using. For this standard points might be located near survey office and before committing to instrument for field work, its working is checked by means of observing those standard points in the specified instrument station.

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ERRORS IN PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

ERRORS IN PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

The errors could be grouped into the instrumental in addition to personal errors.

Instrumental Errors

1. The outer lining of plane table not flawlessly plane.
2. Bevelled edge connected with alidade not straight.
3. Sight vanes of alidade not perfectly perpendicular on the base.
4. Plane table clamp currently being loose.
5. Magnetic compass currently being sluggish.
6. Drawing sheet being of low quality.

Personal Errors

1. Centering errors
2. Levelling errors
3. Positioning errors
4. Sighting errors
5. Problems in measurement
6. Plotting errors
7. Errors due to instability of tripod.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLANE TABLE SURVEY

Strengths are

1. Possibility of omitting measurement is eliminated.
2. The surveyor can compare the plotted work within the field then and there just.
3. Irregular objects are plotted a lot more accurately, since they are viewed while plotting.
4. Booking errors are eliminated.
5. Local attractions usually do not influence the plotting.
6. No great skill is instructed to produce satisfactory maps.
7. Approach is fast.
8. No costly instruments are needed.

Limitations are

1. Survey are not conducted in wet weather in addition to rainy days.
2. Plane table is cumbersome and heavy to handle.
3. It needs many equipment.
4. It is less exact.
5. Reproduction of map in order to different scale is difficult.

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METHOD OF USING A COMPASS

METHOD OF USING A COMPASS

To have a reading from a compass, these temporary adjustments are needed:

(i) Centring: The compass needs to be fixed to the stand and set around the station. To centre the compass legs on the tripod stand should be moved inward-outward or in an circumferential direction. To check centring plumb works well or a pebble dropped around the centre of the compass.

(ii) Levelling: In compass survey perfect levelling seriously isn't necessary, but it should be sufficient to allow for free suspension of permanent magnetic filling device. For checking levelling a bubble level is provided in many compasses. After centring bubble should be ensured in the middle of the circle provided for it into the level. If it is not within that circle, circumferential movements can be provided for the legs of tripod to make certain without disturbing centring the levelling is going to be achieved.

(iii) Focussing the prism: In prismatic compass, to focus this specific prism on graduated circle, it is attachment is slided up as well as down till the readings are usually clearly visible. There is not any such requirement in surveyors compass. Another steps are required for observing bearing of your line, say, AB:

(i) Centre the compass around the.

(ii) Level the compass.

(iii) Concentration the prism, if prismatic compass is employed.

(iv) Rotate the box till ranging rod at B is sighted over the line of sight.

(v) Produce the needle to rest making use of knob.

(vi) Take the reading and note it into the field book. Care should be taken to determine that the line of sight seriously isn't disturbed involving the line of sighting the object along with the time of reading the retaining.

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OBJECT AND USES OF SURVEYING

OBJECT AND USES OF SURVEYING

As stated in the definition, object of surveying is always to show relative positions of various objects of the area on paper and produce plan or map of this area. Various uses of surveying are down the page:

(i) Plans prepared to file property lines of private, public and government lands help in avoiding unnecessary controversies.

(ii) Routes prepared for marking boundaries associated with countries, states, districts etc., stay clear of disputes.

(iii) Locality plans help within identifying location of houses and offices in your neighborhood.
(iv) Road maps help travellers and tourist.

(v) Topographic roadmaps showing natural features like waters, streams, hills, forests help within planning irrigation projects and ton control measures.

(vi) For planning and estimating project works such as roads, bridges, railways, airports, water supply and waste water disposal surveying is essential.

(vii) Marine and hydrographic questionnaire helps in planning navigation avenues and harbours.

(viii) Military survey is essential for strategic planning.

(ix) Mine surveys are important for exploring minearl wealth.

(x) Geological surveys are necessary for determining different strata in the earth crust so that proper location is located for reservoirs.

(xi) Archeological surveys are helpful for unearthing relics of antiquity. (xii) Astronomical survey helps in the study of movements of exoplanets and for calculating local along with standard times.

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COST EFFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

COST EFFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Extensive research and development works have been taken place at various research centres to work with local materials, waste materials and prefabricated structural components to reduce the price of construction. Some of the improved less expensive technology are listed below:

1. Groundwork: Under reamed piles for foundations have been developed for housing in dark-colored cotton soil area.

2. Damp Proof Courses: Use of polythene, bituminous materials and cement mortar with water proofing agents have been suggested for damp proof lessons.

3. Walls: Fly ash stones, precast hollow concrete blocks (without plaster), brick panels and precast wall panels may be used to get reasonably good comfort having little cost.

4. Doors and Windows: Precast R. C. G. frames can save 25 to 30 percent cost when composed with timber frames. Instead of wooden shutters particle board shutters can be utilized.

5. Lintels and Chejja: In your neighborhood available stones and slates can serve as lintels and chejja.

6. Precast Structural Factors: In mass constructions works precast members can be utilized for columns, beams, reapers and stair cases. One can think about using wall panels also.

7. Roofing Units: A. C. sheets, bare cement bonded fibre sheets, paper corrugated linens, lime and fly ash cell slabs, solid planks, slates, ferrocement roof units etc. may be used for low cost housing roofs.

8. Floor: Low cost housing flooring may be with soil cement base, skinny clay tiles, bricks on perimeters or with flagstones. If group housing is absorbed automatically there is cost lowering, since mobilization of men, materials cost is reduced and continuity regarding labour work is maintained.

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Requirement of good stairs and Types

 Requirement of good stairs and Types

Stair give access from floor to be able to floor. The space/room housing stairs is called staircase. Stairs consists of quite a few steps arranged in a single flight or maybe more number of flights.
The dependence on good stairs are

(a) Width: 0. 9 m in residential buildings and 1. 5 meters to 2. 5 m in public places buildings.
(b) Number of Steps in a very Flight: Maximum number of steps in a very flight should be limited to be able to 12 to 14, while minimal is 3.
(c) Rise: Rise provided need to be uniform. It is normally 150 mm to be able to 175 mm in residential buildings although it is kept between 120 mm to 150 mm in public places buildings. However in commercial buildings more rise is provided through the consideration of economic floor region.
(d) Tread: Horizontal projection of any step in a stair case is called tread. It is also often known as going. In residential buildings tread provided is 250 mm during public buildings it is 270 mm to be able to 300 mm. The following empirical formula is utilized to decide rise and tread:

2R + T > 550 mm but < 700 to 600 mm

whereR is usually rise in mm and Capital t is tread in mm.

(e) Scalp Room: Head room available in the stair case really should not be less than 2. 1 meters.
(f) Hand Rails: Hand rails need to be provided at a convenient height of any normal person which is through 850 mm to 900 mm.

Types of Stairs

The stairs may be designed with wood, concrete masonry or together with cast iron. Wooden stairs will not be safe, because of the danger of fire. However they are used in unimportant buildings to having access to small areas in the top floors. Cast iron or steel stairs inside the spiral forms were used commonly to scale back stair case area. In many residential buildings masonry stairs are used. Reinforced concrete stairs are incredibly commonly used in all kinds of buildings. Based on the shapes stairs could be classified as:
(a) Straight stairs
(b) Dog legged stairs
(c) Nicely or open-newel stairs
(d) Geometrical stairs
(e) Spiral stairs
(f) Turning stairs.

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PLASTERING

PLASTERING

Applying mortar coats for the surfaces of walls, columns, limit etc. to get smooth finish is called as plastering. Mortar used for plastering can be lime mortar, cement mortar as well as lime-cement mortar. Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of just one: 3 or 1: 4. If hydraulic lime can be used mix proportion (lime: sand) will be 1: 2. Cement mortar of just one: 4 or 1: 6 mix can be quite commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for outer walls. To combine the fee effectiveness of lime mortar and quality of cement mortar many make use of lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement: lime: sand) of 1: 1: 6 as well as 1: 1: 8 or 1: 2: 8.

The objective of plastering are usually:
1. to conceal defective artistry
2. to give smooth surface in order to avoid catching of dust.
3. to offer good look.
4. to protect the wall from rain water along with other atmospheric agencies.
5. to safeguard surfaces against vermit.

Requirement associated with good plaster are: 

1. It will adhere to the background easily.
2. It should be hard and durable.
3. It need to prevent penetration by moisture
4. It should be cheap.
Lime mortar is usually utilized in 3 coats while bare concrete mortar is applied in a couple of coats for the stone as well as brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be applied in a couple of coats. For concrete building blocks more often than not only one coat of bare concrete mortar is applied. The first coat provides way of getting level surface.

The final coat provides smooth surface. If three coats are used second coat is referred to as floating coat. The average breadth of first coat is 10 to 15 mm. Middle coat breadth is 6–8 mm. The final coat is just 2 to 3 mm thick. If single coat can be used its thickness is kept in between 6 to 12 mm. Such coats are utilized on concrete surfaces not subjected to rain.

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Oversight of Stone Masonry Construction

Oversight of Stone Masonry Construction 

The next points should be kept in mind in supervising stone masonry work:

1. Hard and durable pebbles, free from defects like imperfections, cavities veins etc. should double.
2. Dressing of the stones ought to be as per the requirement.
3. Stones should be properly wetted before they are used so as to avoid sucking of water from mortar.
4. Stones should be laid on their natural bed.
5. Facing and backing faces ought to be laid neatly and levelled along with checked with wooden template.
6. One's heart of masonry should be stuffed with stone chips and mortars. To thick mortar joints ought to be avoided.
7. Verticality of the wall ought to be frequently checked with plumb-bob.
8. Mortars with correct proportion of sand and cement ought to be used.
9. Continuous vertical joints ought to be avoided.
10. Through stones ought to be used within 1. 5 michael distances.
11. The height of masonry ought to be raised uniformly.
12. Under the beams, trusses, sills etc large flat stones ought to be used.
13. Before continuing work, the masonry built on previous day ought to be well cleaned and freed from loose particles.
14. Curing should be done properly for 2-3 weeks.

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BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF ANY BUILDING

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF ANY BUILDING

The planning and construction of the building should be aimed at fulfilling the next requirements:
1. Strength and steadiness
2. Dimensional stability
3. Amount of resistance to dampness
4. Resistance to help fire
5. Heat insulation
6. Noise insulation
7. Protection against pest attack
8. Durability
9. Security against burglary
10. Lighting in addition to ventilation
11. Comforts and advantage
12. Economy.

1. Strength in addition to Stability: Building should be capable of transferring the expected loads within its life period safely towards ground. Design of various structural parts like slabs, beams, walls, tips and footing should ensure basic safety. None of the structural parts should buckle, overturn and fall.

2. Dimensional Stability: Excessive deformation of structural components provide a sense of instability and outcome into crack in walls, flooring etc. All structural components, need to be so designed that deflections tend not to exceed the permissible values specified within the codes.

3. Resistance to Dampness: Dampness in a building is a superb nuisance and it may reduce the life of the building. Great care need to be taken in planning and within the construction of the building to avoid dampness.

4. Resistance to Flame: Regarding achieving resistance to fire, the basic requirements laid down within the codes are:
(a) the structure should never ignite easily.
(b) building orientation need to be such that spread of fire is slow.
(c) In case of fire, there should be means of easy access to vacate making quickly.

5. Heat Insulation: A building need to be so oriented and designed who's insulates interior from heat.

6. Noise Insulation: Buildings should be designed against outdoor and indoor disturbance.

7. Protection from Termite: Buildings need to be protected from termites.

8. Durability: Each and every component from the building should be durable.

9. Security against Burglary: This is the basic need the master of the building expects.

10. Lights and Ventilation: For healthy and happy living natural light and ventilations are required. Diffused light and good cross ventilation need to be available inside the building.

11. Comforts and Conveniences: Various units in the building need to be properly grouped and integrated remembering the comfort and convenience from the user.

12. Economy: Economy without having sacrificing comfort, convenience and durability is another basic requirement of the building.

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VARNISHES

VARNISHES

Varnish may be the solution of resins or resinous materials like amber, copal, shellac, teeth resin etc. in solvents including oil, turpentile, alcohol etc. Based on the solvents used varnishes are usually classified as,oil varnishes, turpentile varnishes, character varnishes and water varnishes. The desirable characteristics associated with an ideal varnish are

1. It will give glossy surface.
2. Must be durable.
3. It should dried rapidly after application.
4. It will not develop cracks after drying. It is commonly used with wooden surfaces.

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Varieties of Paints

Varieties of Paints

Varieties of Paints Depending upon their constituents types of types of paints. A brief description of a lot of them which are commonly used are shown below:

1. Oil Paint: These kind of paints are applied in 3 coats-primer, undercoat and finishing coat. The presence of dampness even though applying the primer adversely affect the life span of oil paint. This paint is cheap and all to easy to apply.

2. Enamel Paint: Its full of white lead, oil, petroleum heart and resinous material. The surface offered by it resists acids, alkalies and water perfectly. It is desirable to apply a coat of titanium white prior to coat of enamel is used. It can be used each for external and internal partitions.

3. Emulsion Paint: It contains binding materials for instance polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins and many others. It dries in 1 1 a couple of to 2 hours and it is possible to apply. It is more durable and can be cleaned with water. With regard to plastered surfaces, first a coat of cement paint need to be applied and then the emulsion level. Emulsion paint needs sound types of surface.

4. Cement Paint: It can be found in powder form. It consists of white cement, pigment and some other additives. It is durable as well as exhibits excellent decorative appearance. It must be applied on
rough surfaces rather than on smooth surfaces. It is applied in two coats. First coat is applied on wet surface but totally free of excess water and allowed to dry every day and night. The second coat is then applied which gives good appearance.

5. Bituminous Paints: This kind of paint is manufactured by dissolving concrete or vegetable bitumen in gas or petroleum. It is black in colour. It is useful for painting iron works under h2o.

6. Synthetic Rubber Paint: This kind of paint is prepared from resins. It dries quickly and is also little affected by weather as well as sunlight. It resists chemical invasion well. This paint may be used even on fresh concrete. Its cost is moderate and it might be applied easily.

7. Aluminium Paint: It contains finely ground alloy in spirit or oil varnish. It's visible in darkness also. The surfaces of iron as well as steel are protected well using this type of paint. It is widely useful for painting gas tanks, water pipe joints and oil tanks.

8. Anti-corrossive Paint: It consists essentially of gas, a strong dier, lead or even zinc chrome and finely ground sand. It is cheap as well as resists corrossion well. It is black in colour.

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Use of Plastics

Use of  Plastics

There are variety of plastics made to suit various uses. The typical uses of plastics in buildings is listed below:
1. Corrugated and plain sheets for roofing.
2. For producing jointless flooring.
3. Flooring tiles. 4. Overhead water tanks.
5. Bathroom and sink units.
6. Cistern lounge floats.
7. Decorative laminates in addition to mouldings.
8. Window and doorway frames and shutters for bathing room doors.
9. Lighting fixtures.
10. Electric conduits.
11. Electrical insulators.
12. Pipes to hold cold waters.

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Properties of Plastics

Properties of Plastics

1. Colour: Several plastics are completely transparent. Using pigments plastics of any attractive colour can be produced.

2. Dimensional Stability: It really is dimensionally stable to a wonderful extent.

3. Durability: Plastic offers great resistance to moisture and chemicals and hence more durable.

4. Electrical Efficiency: The plastics possess excellent electrical insulating property.

5. Fire Level of resistance: The phenol-formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde plastics resist fire to a great extent and hence they're used as fire proofing products.

6. Strength: The plastics are generally reasonably strong. Their strength might be increased by reinforcing with numerous fibrous materials. Attempts are being created to produce structurally sound plastics.

7. Certain Gravity: The specific gravity of plastics can be quite low and hence convenient to manage.

8. Ductility: The plastics aren't ductile and hence they fall short without giving warning.

9. Repairing: Plastics can be bolted, drilled, glued, clamped or just push fitted in position.

10. Repair: There is no maintenance charge for plastic articles i. at the., they do not need painting and polishing.

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Types of Plastics

Types of Plastics

Plastic is an organic material prepared out regarding resin. It may or might not contain fillers, plasticisers and solvents. Plastic may be defined like a natural or synthetic organic material which can be having the property of staying plastic at some stage of their manufacture when they could be moulded to required size in addition to shape. Shellac and bitumen are this natural resins used as plastic for some time. In 1907, Blackland produced synthetic resin from your reaction of phenol and formaldehyde. The resin was hardened under pressure and heat to produce useful plastic articles.

Types of Plastics Primarily there are two forms of plastics:
1. Thermosetting and
2. Thermoplastic.

1. Thermosetting Plastics: It needs momentary heated condition and excellent pressure during shaping. When heated cross linkage is established between the molecules and chemical reaction occurs. During this stage shape is usually changed with pressure. This change is not reversible. The scrap of such plastic is not reusable. Bakelite is an illustration of such plastic.

2. Thermoplastic: In this variety, the linkage relating to the molecules is very loose. They can be softened by heating repeatedly. This particular property helps for reuse connected with waste plastic. These plastic need the perfect time to cool down and harden. These plastics can be kept in moulds till cooling happens completely. Bitumen, cellulose and shellac would be the examples of this variety connected with plastics.

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Types of Glass

Types of Glass 

The glass may be broadly classified as:
1. Soda-lime glass
2. Potash lime glass
3. Potash lead glass
4. Common glass and
5. Special glasses.

1. Soda Lime Glass: It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate. It's fusible at low temperature. In the fusion condition it can be blown or welded easily. It's colourless. It is used as window panes and to the laboratory tubes and apparatus.

2. Potash Lime Glass: It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and calcium silicate. It is usually known as hard glass. It fuses at high temperature. It is used in the actual manufacture of glass articles which may have to with stand high conditions.

3. Potash Lead Glass: It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate. That possesses bright lustre and good refractive power. It is utilized in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms and many others.

4. Common Glass: It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and also iron silicate. It is brownish, green or yellow in color. It is mainly used within the manufacture of medicine bottles.

5. Exclusive Glasses: Properties of glasses might be suitably altered by changing standard ingradients and adding few additional ingradients. It has now emerged as versatile material to meet up with many special requirement in anatomist. The following is the list of many of the special glasses.

(a) Fibre glass
(b) Foam glass
(c) Bullet proof glass
(d) Structural glass
(e) Glass black
(f) Wired glass
(g) Ultraviolet ray glass
(h) Perforated glass.

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Properties of Glass

Properties of Glass

 

Silica is the main ingredient of glass. But it will be added with sodium potassium carbonate to create down melting point. To help it become durable lime or lead oxide is additionally added. Manganese oxide is added to nullify the adverse effects of unwanted iron seen in the impure silica. The garbage are ground and sieved. There're mixed in specific proportion as well as melted in furnace. Then a glass items are manufactured by coming, flat drawing, rolling and pushing.
Important

Properties of Glass 

1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits gentle. It can be made translucent or translucent.
2. It might take excellent polish.
3. It is a good electrical insulator.
4. It is usually strong and brittle.
5. It may be blown, drawn or pressed.
6. It is not affected by atmosphere.
7. It offers excellent resistance to chemicals.
8. It comes in various beautiful colours.
9. While using advancement in technology, it can be done to make glass lighter compared to cork or stronger than metal.
10. Glass panes can always be cleaned easily.

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Properties and Uses of Copper

Properties and Uses of Copper 

It is a naturally available metal such as ores which contain small number of iron and sulphur. After eliminating impurities, it is processed electrolytically for getting purest metal. This metal is almost indestructible. Copper scrap can be processed for getting original copper.

Properties of Copper 

1. It is having reddish brown colour. 

2. Its composition is crystalline. 

3. It is usually highly ductile and malleable. four. It resists corrossion. 

5. It could be welded easily at red warm condition. 

6. Dents on the copper might be hammered out. 

7. It features high electric and thermal conductivity. 

8. Its melting point are at 1083°C.

Uses of Copper 

1. It really is used as electric wire in addition to cable. 

2. It is utilized as lighting conductor. 

3. For water proofing the construction joints copper plates utilized. 

4. Copper tubes are employed for hot and cold water provide, gas and sanitation connections. 

5. It forms a significant constituent of brass and bronze.

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